Monday, September 30, 2019

Consider the Topic of Sexual Ethics Essay

A. Introduction The issue of sexual ethics is concerned with the intimate relationships which we form. Three aspects currently under debate are cohabitation, polygamy and same sex relationships. B What do you think are the key issues in the debate? Any debate regarding sexual ethics lies in whether or not our behaviour is contrary to the teaching of Scripture. The difficulty for Anglicans however, lies in the fact that we also look to tradition and reason to guide us. 1. Cohabitation The question here is whether cohabitation is acceptable. Scriptural teaching regarding the sanctity of marriage[1] and the unacceptability of premarital sex[2] appears clear, but there are Anglicans who argue that a faithful and committed relationship with another person is acceptable in the eyes of God. 2. Polygamy This debate demonstrates the tension that exists between cultural practices and Christianity. It is an issue of particular significance within the West African Province where polygamy is common. The debate centres on what happens when a polygamist converts to Christianity, both in terms of their own practice and what it means for their spouses. Within the Old Testament, there is evidence that the practice of polygamy was acceptable[3] but there is no explicit teaching within the New Testament. [4] 3. Same Sex relationships This debate addresses whether homosexuality is acceptable according to Scripture and whether or not active homosexuals should be ordained or even consecrated, and whether those in same sex relationships should be allowed to be married or have their relationships blessed in Church? This debate also reminds Anglicans within the United Kingdom of the tensions between Church and State. The government’s Civil Partnerships Act 2004 allows registration of same sex relationships, and this has been followed up by the Marriages and Civil Partnerships (Approved Premises)(Amendment) Regulations 2011, which allows civil partnership ceremonies in places of worship.[5] The teachings of Leviticus 18:22 and 20:13; I Corinthians 6:9-10 and Romans 1:26-27 are often used as evidence against homosexuality, though there are some who argue that the relationships of Ruth and Naomi and David and Jonathan contradict this. C How is the Church going about debating these issues (what is the process and how is it going)? 1. Global Processes Anglicans rely on three Instruments of Communion, to provide guidance for global issues affecting the Anglican Church, with the Archbishop of Canterbury acting as the focus of unity: 1. The Lambeth Conferences, held every 10 years 2. The Primates’ meetings 3. The Anglican Consultative Council. I. Lambeth Conferences In 1998, the Lambeth Conference issued Resolution 1.10 On Human Sexuality. [6] This laid out the position of the Church, affirming the sanctity of marriage and celibacy as an alternative. However the 2008 Conference did not re-open the debate, with Archbishop Rowan writing to the Primates before it to say: â€Å" In my judgement, we cannot properly or usefully re-open the discussion as if Resolution 1.10 of Lambeth 1998 did not continue to represent the general mind of the Communion.† I. Primates Meetings These are called at the request of the Archbishop of Canterbury, and can bridge the gap between one Lambeth Conference and the next. Primates’ Meetings were called in 2003 following Gene Robinson’s election as Bishop of New Hampshire, in the Episcopal Church of the USA. (ECUSA) This led to the reaffirmation of the Anglican Communion’s position as set out in Lambeth 1.10. It called for the voluntary withdrawal of the Anglican Church in Canada and ECUSA until the next Lambeth Conference in 2008, and for a Commission to look into the issue, resulting in the Windsor Report of 2004. II. Anglican Consultative Council. This meets every two to three years moving between the Provinces. It is composed of clergy and laity [7] . Its role can be shown by its response to the issue of polygamy. In 1984 it passed Resolution 18: â€Å"Be it resolved that this ACC-6 requests the Council for Anglican Provinces in Africa (CAPA) to study the issue of polygamy and the Christian family further in both its theological and pastoral dimensions and asks CAPA to co-ordinate the studies and to make available its findings to the Lambeth Conference of 1988.† 2. Local Processes In addition, Provinces and Dioceses also hold regular synods which provide an opportunity for issues specific to that body to be debated, such as the issue of polygamy. These are attended by representatives from the clergy and the laity. It was within this structure that the issue of same sex relationships became more prominent with the request of the Diocesan Synod of New Westminster Canada for the production of a rite of blessing for same sex unions and the election of Gene Robinson as bishop of New Hampshire in 2003. In response to the Primates’ Meeting and the Windsor Report, the General Convention of ECUSA met in 2006 & passed 6 Resolutions. 3. Informal Processes Besides these formal processes, there are also a number of informal ways in which this debate is being carried out amongst other members of the Anglican Communion. These include a number of internet websites and forums as well as through publications. Indeed the most prominent place for debate is often via the world’s media, though the reporting is not always as balanced as one might like. D And how do you think this discussion might in due course be resolved, without being untrue to the character of Anglicanism? The Anglican way would be to seek a compromise which would allow all parties to continue within the Communion.[8] In theory this would allow the various Provinces, to hold true to their beliefs. In 2008, Archbishop Rowan proposed a way forward which had been suggested in the Windsor Report (2004), namely the Anglican Covenant.[9] Although this seems to offer a possible solution, it is clear that in so doing it will fundamentally alter the nature of the Anglican Communion, with those who sign up accepting the consensus view on any issue. Perhaps this is true to the character of Anglicanism after all-for if we look back to the Reformation, underpinning it was the belief of churchmen at the time that â€Å"Ecclesia semper reformando† (the Church is always in need of reform). E. Conclusion The issue of sexual ethics is so complex because it generally provokes an emotional response in us. It is an issue where the tensions between church and state and Christian values and those of society are often at odds. For Anglicans the key challenge is how to keep a balance between Scripture, Tradition and Reason. Appendix 1: Lambeth Resolution 1.10 This Conference: a. commends to the Church the subsection report on human sexuality; b. in view of the teaching of Scripture, upholds faithfulness in marriage between a man and a woman in lifelong union, and believes that abstinence is right for those who are not called to marriage; c. recognises that there are among us persons who experience themselves as having a homosexual orientation. Many of these are members of the Church and are seeking the pastoral care, moral direction of the Church, and God’s transforming power for the living of their lives and the ordering of relationships. We commit ourselves to listen to the experience of homosexual persons and we wish to assure them that they are loved by God and that all baptised, believing and faithful persons, regardless of sexual orientation, are full members of the Body of Christ; d. while rejecting homosexual practice as incompatible with Scripture, calls on all our people to minister pastorally and sensitively to all irrespective of sexual orientation and to condemn irrational fear of homosexuals, violence within marriage and any trivialisation and commercialisation of sex; e. cannot advise the legitimising or blessing of same sex unions nor ordaining those involved in same gender unions; f. requests the Primates and the ACC to establish a means of monitoring the work done on the subject of human sexuality in the Communion and to share statements and resources among us; g. notes the significance of the Kuala Lumpur Statement on Human Sexuality[10] and the concerns expressed in resolutions IV.26, V.1, V.10, V.23 and V.35 on the authority of Scripture in matters of marriage and sexuality and asks the Primates and the ACC to include them in their monitoring process. Appendix 2: The Kuala Lumpur Statement on Human Sexuality – 2nd Encounter in the South, 10 to 15 Feb 97 God’s glory and loving purposes have been revealed in the creation of humankind (Rom. 1:18; Gen. 1:36, 27). Among the multiplicity of his gifts we are blessed with our sexuality. 1. Since the Fall (Gen. 3), life has been impaired and God’s purposes spoilt. Our fallen state has affected every sphere of our being, which includes our sexuality. Sexual deviation has existed in every time and in most cultures. Jesus’ teaching about lust in the Sermon on the Mount (Matt. 5:27-30) makes it clear that sexual sin is a real danger and temptation to us all. 2. It is, therefore, with an awareness of our own vulnerability to sexual sin that we express our profound concern about recent developments relating to Church discipline and moral teaching in some provinces in the North – specifically, the ordination of practicing homosexuals and the blessing of same-sex unions. 3. While acknowledging the complexities of our sexual nature and the strong drives it places within us, we are quite clear about God’s will in this area which is expressed in the Bible.   4. The Scripture bears witness to God’s will regarding human sexuality which is to be expressed only within the life long union of a man and a woman in (holy) matrimony.   5. The Holy Scriptures are clear in teaching that all sexual promiscuity is sin. We are convinced that this includes homosexual practices between men or women, as well as heterosexual relationships outside marriage. 6. We believe that the clear and unambiguous teaching of the Holy Scriptures about human sexuality is of great help to Christians as it provides clear boundaries.   7. We find no conflict between cleaer biblical teaching and sensitive pastoral care. Repentance precedes forgiveness and is part of the healing process. To heal spiritual wounds in God’s name we need his wisdom and truth. We see this in the ministry of Jesus, for example his response to the adulterous women, â€Å"†¦neither do I condemn you. Go and sin no more.† (John 8:11) 8. We encourage the Church to care for all those who are trapped in their sexual brokenness and to become the channel of Christ’s compassion and love towards them. We wish to stand alongside and welcome them into a process of being whole and restored within our communities of faith. We would also affirm and resource those who exercise a pastoral ministry in this area. 9. We are deeply concerned that the setting aside of biblical teaching in such actions as the ordination of practicing homosexuals and the blessing of same-sex unions calls into question the authority of the Holy Scriptures. This is totally unaccceptable to us. 10. This leads us to express concern about mutual accountability and interdependence within our Anglican Communion. As provinces and dioceses, we need to learn how to seek each other’s counsel and wisdom in a spirit of true unity, and to reach a common mind before embarking on radical changes to Church discipline and moral teaching. 11. We live in a global village and must be more aware that the way we act in one part of the world can radically affect the mission and witness of the Church in another Bibliography Chatfield, A. (2007) Something in Common. Nottingham, UK: St John’s Extension Studies. Coogan, M.D. (Ed.). (2007). The New Oxford Annotated Bible New Revised Standard Version. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Bradshaw, T (ed) (1997) The Way Forward? London, UK: Hodder and Stoughton. Linzey, A And Kirker R (eds) (2005) Gays and the Future of Anglicanism: Responses to the Windsor Report. Winchester, UK: O Books. http://www.churchofengland.org/our-views/marriage,-family-and-sexuality-issues.aspx http://www.globalsouthanglican.org/index.php/comments/the_kuala_lumpur_statement_on_human_sexuality_2nd_encounter_in_the_south_10/ [4] The early Church perhaps provides guidance with St Augustine stating in On Good Marriage: â€Å" And yet it is not allowed; and now indeed in our times, and after the usage of Rome neither to marry in addition, so as to have more than one wife living.† [5] Though not as yet in our Churches-as this would require a resolution at General Synod. [6] See Appendix 1 for the full resolution. [7] The Anglican Communion website defines its purpose as follows: â€Å"to facilitate the co-operative work of the churches of the Anglican Communion, exchange information between the Provinces and churches, and help to co-ordinate common action. It advises on the organisation and structures of the Communion, and seeks to develop common policies with respect to the world mission of the Church, including ecumenical matters. The ACC membership includes from one to three persons from each province. Where there are three members, there is a bishop, a priest and a lay person. Where fewer members are appointed, preference is given to lay membership.† (http://www.anglicancommunion.org/communion/acc/about.cfm) [8] The Windsor Report of 2004 affirmed the rights of Provinces and dioceses to self-government. [9] â€Å"Second, the controversies of recent years have spotlighted the difficulties we have as a Communion of making decisions in a corporate way. The Windsor Report raised this as a major question, and we shall need time to think about the Report’s theological principles and its practical suggestions, particularly the idea of a ‘Covenant’ for our Provinces, expressing our responsibility to and for each other.† (letter to Primates 2008) [10] See Appendix 2 ———————– Consider the topic of sexual ethics currently under discussion in the Anglican Communion today. Answer the following three questions on it: A. What do you think are the key issues in the debate? B. How is the Anglican Church going about debating these issues (what is the process, and how is it going)? C. And how do you think this discussion might in due course be resolved, without being untrue to the character of Anglicanism?

Sunday, September 29, 2019

Do It Yourself Medical Tests: The Real Story Essay

In the past decade or so, the advancement of technology has resulted in the boom of gadgets such as cellular phones, handheld computers, flat screen television sets and the like. However, this progression is not only evident in entertainment and information devices. In fact, these vast technological developments have also made an impact in the field of medicine and healthcare. Through the years, the introduction and use of highly sophisticated equipment has significantly improved the diagnosis and treatment of diseases, such as cancer. Most of the time, doctors merely have to evaluate their patients and make them undergo a series of machine-based tests to further diagnose the disease or complications. However, more than hospital-based technology, the introduction devices or kits have made it possible for patients to undergo medical tests in the convenience of their own homes. Before, a woman who suspects that she is pregnant had to visit her physician, give him a urine sample and wait for days for the results of the pregnancy tests. Possibly, the only test that could be done at home back then was checking your temperature using a thermometer. Now, however, simple tests like pregnancy tests and blood sugar tests for diabetes can be bought over the counter, which means that patients no longer have to see their doctor often just to undergo these tests. According to the Detroit Medical Center’s online article, Do-It-Yourself Medical Testing Makes Inroads, other do-it-yourself test kits that have been made available for the past years include tests for hepatitis, cholesterol, colon cancer, urinary tract infections and HIV. Impact and Cost of Do-It-yourself Kits  Based on the Detroit Medical Center’s journal, do-it-yourself medical test kits have made a significant impact on patients’ lives, in particular, the amount of time they spend visiting their doctors and the length of availability of the test results. For example, in the past, diabetic patients had to check whether or not there was sugar in their urine to monitor their blood glucose. However, the introduction of testing strips and blood glucose meters, which were usually strapped to a patient’s wrist, made that procedure archaic and provided greater convenience to diabetic patients. The patients can actually measure the changes in their blood sugar without checking their urine and adjust their food intake and medication according to the results of the blood glucose meter. Moreover, based on the article, these meters can monitor blood glucose levels up to six times an hour, decreasing the need to use painful finger pricks, which is one reason why patients hesitate to undergo the test before. In addition, the development of finer lancets and improved meters used for pricking require less of the patient’s blood. Another home test kit that is currently available and commonly used at home is the cholesterol monitoring tests. While this test does not provide an amount of all the cholesterol fractions such as the good cholesterol and the bad cholesterol, it gives a patient a fairly simple overview of his or her cholesterol count. Similarly, home-test kits such as tests for ovulation, fecal occult blood, colon cancer, hepatitis, urinary tract infections, HIV as well as blood pressure monitoring machines, have provided patients with the convenience of diagnosing themselves at home. However, while the do-it-yourself home test kit is a significant addition to society, it also comes with a high price. Based on Walton Crocker’s article, Do’s and Don’ts for Do-It-Yourself Home Medical Testing, which was published in the Associated Content’s website, home medical test kits like cholesterol tests, prostate cancer tests, drug tests, HIV tests, hepatitis C tests, test for blood in the stool, and home monitoring machines, such as blood pressure monitoring machines, have a combined cost of more or less $6. 2 billion a year. Moreover, home blood glucose monitoring alone costs about $5. 7 billion a year. The original blood glucose monitoring machine was enormous in size and had to be strapped to a person’s back. Now, in contrast, this machine is only the size of a key chain. In comparison, a patient spends about $75 to $150 dollars on a regular visit to his or her doctor. However, more often than not, a consultation with the doctor regarding a certain disease also includes a large amount of time spent and possible inconveniences as compared to using home test kits which similarly provide diagnosis of a disease. Furthermore, do-it-yourself genetic testing kits have also been developed. Patients use the kits to scrape cells from the inside cheeks and send it for testing. The results are released through e-mail. Risks and Issues of Do-It-Yourself Tests While modern society has warmly welcomed these vast developments in health and diagnosing certain diseases, there have been a lot of questions regarding their accuracy and reliability. For example, the results of the home testing for blood cholesterol levels only gives patients the over-all amount of cholesterol and not the exact breakdown. According to the Detroit Medical Center, tests cholesterol levels should at least include High Density Lipoprotein, the good cholesterol and Low Density Lipoprotein, the bad cholesterol. Usually, the area of concern in this test is the exact amount of bad cholesterol as it more or less determines how unhealthy a patient is and what dietary adjustments a patient should make to control his or her cholesterol levels. Do-it-yourself genetic testing also has major flaws especially in the validation of results. Based on a report cited by Dr. Andrew Weil in his website, a congressional investigation found out that certain firms who are selling home genetic testing kits were produced clinically invalid results. These results, if not checked, can lead to false assumptions of a patient regarding his or her suspected disease. For example, a false positive result of a home genetic test which shows that a woman has a genetic mutation that can lead to breast cancer can make her feel overly worried even though she the results are not factual. On the other hand, a false negative home genetic test result may cause a patient to ignore a potential disease he or she has contracted since he or she believed the test results which are, in fact, invalid. However, despite these issues and controversies however, both the demand and popularity of home test kits are significantly growing. One reason for this popularity, according to Walton Crocker’s article, is that these home test kits provide privacy for patients with possible diseases. People who suspect that they have illnesses or diseases, such as Hepatitis and HIV, would rather want to confirm their suspicions at home through the use of do-it-yourself test kits than go to a doctor and risk other people finding out about their possible disease. The greater convenience and the less time spent are also major factors that contribute to the popularity of home test kits. Furthermore, while doctors and health care professionals are pleased that the diagnosis of certain diseases can be done at home, a major cause of concern is that some patients do not consult a doctor even if they exhibit symptoms of a particular disease mainly because they tested negative in the home test kit. The Detroit Medical Center also raised another concern that patients who use home testing kits think of themselves more as â€Å"consumers† than patients as they can purchase these kits from pharmacies and other drug companies. This basically defeats the primary role of the doctor which is to evaluate a patient’s health condition, diagnose his or her possible diseases, and prescribe a treatment that would eventually cure him or her. Moreover, some companies, especially those accessible online, claim that they are licensed by the government to operate but they are really not. Basically, all the issues, inaccuracies, and flaws of do-it-yourself kits suggest that patients who use them don’t always get the whole story regarding their health condition. The results that patients obtain from these kits are merely bits and pieces of the possible disease or condition that they may have. Doctors still know best  Generally, despite the accessibility of the home testing kits and the convenience that they provide, it is best to consult a doctor first before making conclusions regarding a disease. A patient may test negative for a certain home test kit but the symptoms he or she exhibits may prove otherwise only if he or she consults a doctor, who is the best person to evaluate your health condition. The results of a cholesterol do-it-yourself kit may provide a patient with the amount of cholesterol in his or her body, but it does not say which type of cholesterol he or she has in excess. The patient may have more of the bad cholesterol than the good cholesterol or vice versa, but he or she will never know unless his or her blood is tested in an actual laboratory. Although do-it-yourself kits can give patients an idea about the status of their health, according to the Detroit Medical Center, the tests done on an actual laboratory with certified and experienced professionals is still the best, safest, and most accurate way to diagnose any disease or medical condition. In his article, Walton Crocker suggests that before buying any home test kit, it is best to first consult a doctor to first assess the accuracy and reliability of the home test kit and also evaluate the condition of the patient. Furthermore, patients should also inform a pharmacist of the medications they are taking as some medications can give false negative or false positive results in home test kits.

Saturday, September 28, 2019

Role and Functions of Stock Exchange in India

A PRESENTATION REPORT ON ROLE AND FUNCTIONS OF STOCK EXCHANGE INTRODUCTION A  stock exchange  is a form of  exchange  which provides services for  stock brokers  and  traders  to trade  stocks,  bonds, and other  securities. Stock exchanges also provide facilities for issue and redemption of securities and other financial instruments, and capital events including the payment of income and  dividends. Securities traded on a stock exchange include  shares  issued by companies,  unit trusts,  derivatives, pooled investment products and  bonds.To be able to trade a security on a certain stock exchange, it must be listed there. Usually, there is a central location at least for record keeping, but trade is increasingly less linked to such a physical place, as modern markets are  electronic networks, which gives them advantages of increased speed and reduced cost of transactions. Trade on an exchange is by members only. The initial offering of stocks and bonds to  investors  is by definition done in the  primary market  and subsequent trading is done in the  secondary market.A stock exchange is often the most important component of a  stock market. Supply and demand in stock markets are driven by various factors that, as in all  free markets, affect the price of stocks (see  stock valuation). There is usually no compulsion to issue stock via the stock exchange itself, nor must stock be subsequently traded on the exchange. Such trading is said to be  off exchange  or  over-the-counter. This is the usual way that  derivatives  and  bonds  are traded. Increasingly, stock exchanges are part of a global market for securitiesSTOCK EXCHANGE DEFINITION According to Husband and Dockerary â€Å"Stock exchanges are privately organized markets which are used to facilitate trading in securities. * According to securities contract ( regulation ) act of 1956 â€Å"An association, organization or body of individuals, whether incorporated or not, established for the purpose of assisting, regulating and controlling business in buying, selling and dealing in securities. † Features of Stock Exchange 1. Market for securities  : Stock exchange is a market, where securities of corporate bodies, government and semi-government bodies are bought and sold. . Deals in second hand securities  : It deals with shares, debentures bonds and such securities already issued by the companies. In short it deals with existing or second hand securities and hence it is called secondary market. 3. Regulates trade in securities  : Stock exchange does not buy or sell any securities on its own account. It merely provides the necessary infrastructure and facilities for trade in securities to its members and brokers who trade in securities. It regulates the trade activities so as to ensure free and fair trade 4.Allows dealings only in listed securities  : In fact, stock exchanges maintain an official list of se curities that could be purchased and sold on its floor. Securities which do not figure in the official list of stock exchange are called unlisted securities. Such unlisted securities cannot be traded in the stock exchange. 5. Transactions effected only through members  : All the transactions in securities at the stock exchange are effected only through its authorised brokers and members. Outsiders or direct investors are not allowed to enter in the trading circles of the stock exchange.Investors have to buy or sell the securities at the stock exchange through the authorised brokers only. 6. Association of persons  : A stock exchange is an association of persons or body of individuals which may be registered or unregistered. 7. Recognition from Central Government  : Stock exchange is an organised market. It requires recognition from the Central Government. 8. Working as per rules  : Buying and selling transactions in securities at the stock exchange are governed by the rules and regulations of stock exchange as well as  SEBI Guidelines.No deviation from the rules and guidelines is allowed in any case. 9. Specific location  : Stock exchange is a particular market place where authorised brokers come together daily (i. e. on working days) on the floor of market called trading circles and conduct trading activities. The prices of different securities traded are shown on electronic boards. After the working hours market is closed. All the working of stock exchanges is conducted and controlled through computers and electronic system. 10. Financial Barometers  : Stock exchanges are the financial barometers and evelopment indicators of national economy of the country. Industrial growth and stability is reflected in the index of stock exchange. EXISTING STRUTURE OF STOCK EXCHANGE IN INDIA STOCK EXCHANGE OTHERS NSE BSE BOMBAY STOCK EXCHANGE The Bombay Stock Exchange is the oldest exchange in Asia. It traces its history to the 1850s, when four Gujarati and o ne Parsi stockbroker would gather under banyan trees in front of Mumbai's Town Hall. The location of these meetings changed many times, as the number of brokers constantly increased.The group eventually moved to Dalal Street in 1874 and in 1875 became an official organization known as ‘The Native Share & Stock Brokers Association'. In 1956, the BSE became the first stock exchange to be recognized by the  Indian Government  under the Securities Contracts Regulation Act. The Bombay Stock Exchange developed the  BSE SENSEX  in 1986, giving the BSE a means to measure overall performance of the exchange. In 2000 the BSE used this index to open its derivatives market, trading SENSEX futures contracts.The development of SENSEX options along with equity derivatives followed in 2001 and 2002, expanding the BSE's trading platform. Historically an open outcry floor trading exchange, the Bombay Stock Exchange switched to an electronic trading system in 1995. It took the exchan ge only fifty days to make this transition. This automated, screen-based trading platform called BSE On-line trading (BOLT) currently has a capacity of 8 million orders per day. The BSE has also introduced the world's first centralized exchange-based internet trading system, BSEWEBx. o. in to enable investors anywhere in the world to trade on the BSE platform. The BSE is currently housed in  Phiroze Jeejeebhoy Towers  at  Dalal Street,  Fort area. NATIONAL STOCK EXCHANGE The  National Stock Exchange  (NSE) is  stock exchange  located at  Mumbai,  India. It is in the top 20 largest stock exchanges  in the world by  market capitalization  and largest in India by daily turnover and number of trades, for both equities and derivative trading. NSE has a market capitalization of around  US$1  trillion  and over 1,652 listings as of July 2012.Though a number of other exchanges exist, NSE and the  Bombay Stock Exchange  are the two most significant stock e xchanges in India, and between them are responsible for the vast majority of share transactions. The NSE's key index is the  S&P CNX Nifty, known as the NSE  NIFTY  (National Stock Exchange Fifty), an index of fifty major stocks weighted by market capitalization. NSE is mutually owned by a set of leading financial institutions, banks, insurance companies and other financial intermediaries in India but its ownership and management operate as separate entities.There are at least 2 foreign investors  NYSE Euro next  and  Goldman Sachs  who have taken a stake in the NSE. As of 2006, the NSE  VSAT  terminals, 2799 in total, cover more than 1500 cities across India. In 2011, NSE was the third largest stock exchange in the world in terms of the number of contracts (1221 million) traded in equity derivatives. It is the second fastest growing  stock exchange  in the world with a recorded growth of 16. 6%. ROLE OF STOCK EXCHANGE * Effective Mobilisation Of Savings St ock exchanges provide organised market for an individual as well as institutional investors.They regulate the trading transactions with proper rules and regulations in order to ensure investor's protection. This helps to consolidate the confidence of investors and small savers. Thus, stock exchanges attract small savings especially of large number of investors in the capital market. * Promoting Capital formation The funds mobilised through capital market are provided to the industries engaged in the production of various goods and services useful for the society. This leads to capital formation and development of national assets. The savings mobilised are channelised into appropriate avenues of investment. Wider Avenues of investment Stock exchanges provide a wider avenue for the investment to the people and organisations with investible surplus. Companies from diverse industries like Information Technology, Steel, Chemicals, Fuels and Petroleum, Cement, Fertilizers, etc. offer vari ous kinds of equity and debt securities to the investors. Online trading facility has brought the stock exchange at the doorsteps of investors through computer network. Diverse type of securities is made available in the stock exchanges to suit the varying objectives and notions of different classes of investor.Necessary information from stock exchanges available from different sources guides the investors in the effective management of their investment portfolios. * Liquidity of investment Stock exchanges provide liquidity of investment to the investors. Investors can sell out any of their investments in securities at any time during trading days and trading hours on stock exchanges. Thus, stock exchanges provide liquidity of investment. The on-line trading and online settlement of demat securities facilitates the investors to sellout their investments and realise the proceeds within a day or two.Even investors can switch over their investment from one security to another according to the changing scenario of capital market. * Investment priorities Stock exchanges facilitate the investors to decide his investment priorities by providing him the basket of different kinds of securities of different industries and companies. He can sell stock of one company and buy a stock of another company through stock exchange whenever he wants. He can manage his investment portfolio to maximise his wealth. * Investment safetyStock exchanges through their by-laws, Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) guidelines, transparent procedures try to provide safety to the investment in industrial securities. Government has established the National Stock Exchange (NSE) and Over The Counter Exchange of India (OTCEI) for investors' safety. Exchange authorities try to curb speculative practices and minimise the risk for common investor to preserve his confidence. * Financial resources for public and private sectors Stock Exchanges make available the financial resources available to the industries in public and private sector through various kinds of securities.Due to the assurance of liquidity, marketing support, investment safety assured through stock exchanges, the public issues of securities by these industries receive strong public response (resulting in oversubscription of issue). * Funds for Development Purpose Stock exchanges enable the government to mobilise the funds for public utilities and public undertakings which take up the developmental activities like power projects, shipping, railways, telecommunication, dams & roads constructions, etc.Stock exchanges provide liquidity, marketability, price continuity and constant evaluation of government securities. * Indicator of Industrial Development Stock exchanges are the symbolic indicators of industrial development of a nation. Productivity, efficiency, economic-status, prospects of each industry and every unit in an industry is reflected through the price fluctuation of industrial securities o n stock exchanges. Stock exchange sensex and price fluctuations of securities of various companies tell the entire story of changes in industrial sector. Barometer of National Economy Stock exchange is taken as a Barometer of the economy of a country. Each economy is economically symbolized (indicators) by its most significant stock exchange. New York Stock Exchange, London Stock Exchange, Tokyo Stock Exchange and Bombay Stock Exchange are considered as barometers of U. S. A, United Kingdom, Japan and India respectively. At both national and international level these stock exchanges represent the progress and conditions of their economies. Functions FUNCTIONS OF STOCKEXCHANGE * Continuous and ready market for securitiesStock exchange provides a ready and continuous market for purchase and sale of securities. It provides ready outlet for buying and selling of securities. Stock exchange also acts as an outlet/counter for the sale of listed securities . * Facilitates evaluation of secu rities Stock exchange is useful for the evaluation of industrial securities. This enables investors to know the true worth of their holdings at any time. Comparison of companies in the same industry is possible through stock exchange quotations (i. e price list). * Encourages capital formationStock exchange accelerates the process of capital formation. It creates the habit of saving, investing and risk taking among the investing class and converts their savings into profitable investment. It acts as an instrument of capital formation. In addition, it also acts as a channel for right (safe and profitable) investment. * Provides safety and security in dealings Stock exchange provides safety, security and equity (justice) in dealings as transactions are conducted as per well defined rules and regulations. The managing body of the exchange keeps control on the members.Fraudulent practices are also checked effectively. Due to various rules and regulations, stock exchange functions as the custodian of funds of genuine investors. * Regulates company management Listed companies have to comply with rules and regulations of concerned stock exchange and work under the vigilance (i. e supervision) of stock exchange authorities. * Facilitates public borrowing Stock exchange serves as a platform for marketing Government securities. It enables government to raise public debt easily and quickly. * Provides clearing house facilityStock exchange provides a clearing house facility to members. It settles the transactions among the members quickly and with ease. The members have to pay or receive only the net dues (balance amounts) because of the clearing house facility. * Facilitates healthy speculation Healthy speculation, keeps the exchange active. Normal speculation is not dangerous but provides more business to the exchange. However, excessive speculation is undesirable as it is dangerous to investors & the growth of corporate sector. * Serves as Economic BarometerStock e xchange indicates the state of health of companies and the national economy. It acts as a barometer of the economic situation / conditions. * Facilitates Bank Lending Banks easily know the prices of quoted securities. They offer loans to customers against corporate securities. This gives convenience to the owners of securities. List of Stock Exchanges In India  » Bombay Stock Exchange  » National Stock Exchange Regional Stock Exchanges  » Ahmedabad  » Bangalore  » Bhubaneshwar  » Calcutta  » Cochin  » Coimbatore  » Delhi  » Guwahati  » Hyderabad  » Jaipur  » Ludhiana  » Madhya Pradesh Madras  » Magadh  » Mangalore  » Meerut  » OTC Exchange Of India  » Pune  » Saurashtra  » Kutch  » UttarPradesh  »Vadodara CONCLUSION Stock exchange is indispensible for the smooth and orderly functioning of corporate sector in a free market economy. A stock exchange need not be treated as a place for speculation or a gambling den. It should act as a place for safe and profitable investable. , for this effective control on the working of stock exchange is necessary. This will avoid misuse of this platform for excessive speculation, scams and other undesirable and anti social activities.Thus, stock exchange serves the nation in several ways through its diversified economic services which include imparting liquidity to investments, providing marketability, enabling evaluation and ensuring price continuity of securities. Thus we can say that Stock exchange is the mirror of economy REFERENCES * Financial Management – I. M Pandey * Financial Management – Prasanna Chandra * Business studies – B. S Raman * Business studies – P. K Lasar * http://moneycontrol. com * http://investopedia. com * http://wikipedia. com * http://kalyan-city. blogspot. in

Friday, September 27, 2019

Islam, how this was introduced to the United States Essay

Islam, how this was introduced to the United States - Essay Example Islam is a religion which believes only in the existence of one God. Islam was said to have started way back from the time of Columbus. Muslim slaves were brought to the continent of United States to work. Waves of immigrants soon travelled to United States. These immigrants were mostly from the Lebanon, Palestine and Pakistan countries. During the early 1950s, there was an invasion of Muslim professionals who settled in the country after completing their studies. Muslim communities started to be formed and mosques were built. There were scholars and missionaries who came from Middle East. During this time, Islam began to gain support among the Americans. During this period, there was formation of national Islamic groups. Those Muslims who were not practitioners started to get back to their roots and realized the importance of their faith. Today, Mosques, Islamic centers, and school can be located in every community. The Muslims are now speaking up for their faith openly and making s ignificant contributions to values and morals. At present, Islam is said to be the fastest growing faith in the country. The simplicity of Islam and its appeal both to reason and to the heart accounts for its tremendous appeal (A Brief History of Islam in the United States, n.d.). The religion focuses with teachings about God, human responsibility and the life hereafter (A Brief History of Islam in the United States, n.d.). ... other religion, it honors the previous great prophets such as Jesus, Noah, Abraham, Moses, David and many others, and also reiterates the belief of ascribing divinity to the Creator alone (A Brief History of Islam in the United States, n.d.). The Basic Practices of Islam Muslims all over the world follow five pillars for guidance in shaping their religious practice (Rood, 1994). Aside from the laws and traditions, these pillars are very important for Islam. Rick Rood (2004) enumerated the five pillars of Islam religion: First, "There is no God but Allah, and Muhammed is his prophet." These creed should be recited in the presence of two witnesses to constitute oneself as a Muslim. Second, the regular practice of prayers. Sunni Muslims pray five times a day while Shi’ites Muslims pray three times a day. Third, almsgiving. Their religion requires 2.5% of one’s income to be given to the less fortunate or to the spread of Islam. Fourth, is the fasting during the month of Ram adan. Muslims are required to give up all food and liquid intake during daylight hours. Fifth, the Hajj or pilgrimage to Mecca. If possible, Muslims are to make a pilgrimage to Mecca once during his life. Sometimes, a sixth pillar is added (Rood, 1994). This is the Jihad is sometimes called the â€Å"holy war† which means the â€Å"exertion† or â€Å"struggle† in behalf of God. Islam teaches that if a Muslim dies in a holy war, he is rewarded of heaven or the paradise of God. The Effects of Islam in the United States There is a wide spread of Islam in the United States. There are immigrants, workers, professionals such as doctors. The Muslims are making their own contribution to America. The community is united by their faith in Allah. As of today, these American Muslims contributed not only to Islamic

Thursday, September 26, 2019

Poetry Analyze Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Poetry Analyze - Essay Example The poem has a whole bunch of ideas concerning parenthood and the roles of both the parents in bringing up a home. It tells a story of a complete family comprising a father, a mother and children. The mother is a homemaker and takes care of her family by doing home chores such as cleaning the diapers and ensuring her children are safe. The dad on the other hand works to provide for the family, it be evidenced by the fact that it is in the evening that we are introduced to her husband who probably is from work. She tends to the needs of her husband as said in the second last stanza of the poem, â€Å"later that night when Thomas rolled over and lurched into her.† From the last two stanzas, the poem introduces the relationship of a couple in parenthood. These two people are in very different situations. One goes to work to provide for the family, the other takes care of the family by looking after the kids. In all these occurrences, we see the way roles are divided in the running of family affairs. The situation of the woman is that which makes her selflessly dedicate herself to her roles as a mother. Despite the fact that she needs time for herself, she has no freedom at all to be herself in the family; she puts her family first in line and only gets the pleasure of resting for an hour. The rest of the time, she is a mother and a wife. This shows her dedication to parenthood. From the last two stanzas, we see the way the woman is submissive to Thomas by taking care of his needs as a husband. Thomas does not notice how tired the wife has been from the day’s activities. She does not complain about it to her husband instead she does what she wants her to do. This portrays Thomas as a man who is not caring about his wife because we are shown from the last stanza that â€Å"Thomas rolled and lurched into into her, she would open her eyes and think of the place that was hers for an hour.† This means that as a wife she is withdrawn

Evaluating and reviewing current technologies within genetics and Essay

Evaluating and reviewing current technologies within genetics and biotechnology - Essay Example Some endangered species may recover on the brink of extinction, while others will never recover and may be lost forever. According to Neglia (2011), paleontologists estimate that 90 percent of flora and fauna that ever existed have gone extinct. Biotechnology scientists have embarked on extensive use of biotechnology to breed and conserve the endangered species. Biotechnology constitutes techniques that use substances from living organisms to make modified products or develop microorganisms for specific purposes (Gonzalez-Benito & Martin, 2011). Most of the biotechnologies have already been adopted while others are being developed. These biotechnologies include embryo-transfer, artificial insemination, multiple ovulation, ova-pick-up, In-vitro fertilization, embryo splitting, sperm sexing and cloning. Embryo-transfer Embryo transfer is a step in the process of assisted reproduction where embryos are placed in the uterus of a female with the intention of establishing pregnancy (Thongp hakdee et al, 2011). Biotechnologists have identified this procedure to be one of the best technologies in protecting species extinction. The primary demerit of embryo transfer is that it is not economically feasible in small-scale application; however, embryo transfer greatly contributes to genetic improvement in local breeds and restoration of endangered species (Klotzko, 2006). Embryo transfer is advantageous since it affords the possibility of producing a variety of progeny from a female species. This means that one female can be enhanced through biotechnology to produce several offsprings, just as male sperms can be used to fertilize several ova in Artificial Insemination. Biotechnologists, for example, have succeeded in increasing the lifetime productivity of Brown Pelican, Cheetah, Desert Tortoise, and Cockatoo from between six and ten offs springs to twenty-five (Iguchi & Kitano, 2008). Increased numbers of calves ensure that these species are not endangered and protect them from extinction (Hosseini, Fazilati, Moulavi, Foruzanfar, Hajian, Abedi, Nasiri, Kaveh, Shahverdi, Hemami & Nasr-esfahani, 2009). Another advantage of embryo transfer is that genetically outstanding animals have the potential for breeding program and their male young ones are usually selected for use in Artificial Insemination (Field, 2012). These male offsprings have excellent adaptive features that enable them to withstand harsh conditions in diverse environments, thus protecting endangered animals from possible extinction. Scientists can enhance the rate of genetic change with specially designed breeding schemes. This increases the chances of maximizing on the advantages of increased intensity of female selections and possible increase in turnover of generations (Verma, Kumar, Kumar & Chand, 2012). Increased generations turnover is the objective of genetic biotechnologists in their struggle to achieve protection of endangered species from possible extinction. Ethical considerati ons concerning embryo transfer include consent of donors and recipients, avoidance to mix gametes or embryos from different sources, and meeting the settlement of donor expenses. Artificial Insemination Artificial insemination involves deliberate introduction of semen into a female oviduct for the purpose of fertilization by means other than copulation (Araujo, Ginther, Ferreira, Palha?o, Beg & Wiltbank, 2009). The male

Wednesday, September 25, 2019

God's grandeur Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

God's grandeur - Essay Example Basically, the poem bears the purpose of summoning forth the attention of readers to comprehend the nature of God as a divine being and become transported to a dimension of enlightenment instead of preferring to dwell in the mundane life of pure dull work. Through the first part of â€Å"God’s Grandeur†, the octave consists of rhyming pairs ‘foil / oil’, ‘rod / trod’, and ‘toil / soil’ out of consecutive lines whereas ‘God-shod’ comes from two separate lines in the beginning and in the end. This pattern exhibits how the poet renders the rhythm to sound as though there exists ‘springing’ within intonations or tones so that the intended effects accord with the theme of enlivening God’s qualities in a reader’s mind or imagination. Hopkins makes use of words that possess relevance with each other as in the case of ‘toil’ and ‘soil’ as well as ‘rod’ and ‘trod’. On beginning with â€Å"The world is charged with the grandeur of God†, the poet means for the reader to be reminded of the typical knowledge of power via the verb word ‘charged’ with which may be associated an electrical charge, electricity, or an electric field full of charges and electrifying potential each of which is symbolic of power. Based on this perspective, Hopkins seemingly desires a critical reader to draw analogy between the flowing charges to light and God’s power to God’s consuming brilliance and somewhere, perceive the overwhelming difference between man and God. The speaker of the third viewpoint proceeds to state in awe: â€Å"It will flame out, like shining from shook foil; It gathers to a greatness, like the ooze of oil.† In the first use of simile, the thought about ‘flame’ in signifying ‘grandeur’ is aided by the imagery of a foil that shakes and shines at the same time. This somewhat contrasts the second simile where

Tuesday, September 24, 2019

Leadership Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 42

Leadership - Essay Example This kind of leader does not involve the employees in decision making and rather decisions are made at the top and followed by the employees. McGregor categorized second kind of leaders as leaders who follow theory Y. These leaders are those who believe that employees are interested in working. These leaders empower their employees and provide them with the responsibility as well as the authority to make decisions and implement them in order to complete tasks (Jewell et al., 1994). Unlike leaders who follow Theory X, these leaders do not believe in excessive supervisor of the followers and believe that followers should have the freedom to work on their own. Due to empowerment as well as lower level of supervision, followers feel motivated to work on their own and they solve problems as well as perform tasks in a creative manner. The leadership style that James Cain of Water Brands Group follows is open-minded leadership style. This leadership style is based on McGregor’s leadership theory called theory Y. McGregor proposed that, leaders who follow theory Y leadership tend to empower employees. Similarly, Cain who follows an open-minded leadership style provides empowerment to his followers and employees (Pandit, 2005). He does not believe in making decisions on his own. Instead Cain involves his employees in the decision making process by carefully listening to them and then involving their ideas in the making decisions and solving problems faced by the organization. Theory Y states that employees are naturally interested in working and are ready to take responsibility. Cain is following theory Y because he believes that the people working for him and his followers are the assets of his organizations. This means that he has immense trust in the followers and is quite confident about their knowledge, skills and abilities. Due to this

Monday, September 23, 2019

State of the economy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

State of the economy - Essay Example It means that the U.S. economy has improved a lot as compared to the U.S. economy back in 2008. Based on the historical trend of quarter-to-quarter growth in real GDP, the U.S. real GDP tend to increase during the 4th quarter of each year. The trend strongly suggests that demand for products and services usually increase between October to December of each year. (See Figure I – Quarter-to-Quarter Growth in Real GDP on page 2) CPI is defined as â€Å"a measure of the overall cost of the goods and services bought by a typical consumer† (Mankiw 834). There is a significant relationship between the real GDP and CPI. Given that the real GDP falls into negative values, the CPI also tends to be at the lowest value. For instance, the real GDP during the 4th quarter of 2008 was -9%. As a result, the CPI during these periods was following a declining trend from 216.573 in October 2008 down to 210.228 in December 2008. (See Table I – Five-Year Summary of CPI below; Figure II – Five-Year CPI Trend in U.S. on page 3) Unemployment rate is defined as â€Å"the number of unemployed people who want to have a job but do not have one† (Kennedy 36). The U.S. unemployment rate is somehow related to the county’s real GDP. Since the real GDP was at the lowest during the last quarter in 2008, its unemployment rate started to rise significantly on January 2008. It means that there were a lot of companies in the U.S. that had to implement a massive lay-off or close down the company due to bankruptcy. Since the 4th quarter of 2010, the unemployment rate in the United States was moving on a downward trend. The continuous decrease in the U.S. unemployment rate was possible since the U.S. real GDP and CPI was somehow increasing. (See Table II – U.S. Unemployment Rate below; Figure III – Trend of U.S. Unemployment Rate on page 4) Other useful economic indicators include: the producer price index (PPI), interest rates, and export and imports. Specifically the PPI

Sunday, September 22, 2019

Born Black, Live Brave, Die Free

Born Black, Live Brave, Die Free Essay â€Å"Id rather die my way than live yours.†- Lauren Oliver. At some point in your life you have been put down, burdened, discouraged, or even depressed. Sometimes there are certain things you can do to help ease these human issues, but sometimes these issues are opportunities to be even better than you were before; this is so in Richard Wright’s case. In the novel Black Boy Richard Wright was in a constant state of oppression, whether he was encompassed by friends or foes; he was constantly put down, even if it was those who were supposed to always love him. Because of this continuous adversity in his life, Richard Wright gradually develops into a very independent, self-reliant and strong person. Through Richard Wright’s own experiences, maybe other individuals who are in the same situations of life can learn the dexterity of persistence and liberation as well. Throughout Richard’s life, he faces the need for a loving family to help and encourage him. However, they unknowingly help to form his independence. For instance, he has to be independent regarding his negligent father, whom abandons him and the rest of his family (16). Thereafter, Richard’s mother puts the responsibility on him to buy the family’s groceries; â€Å"One evening my mother told me that thereafter I would have to do the shopping for food.† â€Å"When I reached the corner, a gang of boys grabbed me, knocked me down, snatched the basket, took the money, and sent me running home in panic.† He is repeatedly beaten and robbed by a group of boys when he goes to the corner store to buy the groceries, and complains to his mother saying, â€Å"I’m scared,† or, â€Å"They’ll beat me; they’ll beat me.† She simply reacts by giving him a stick and telling him to fight them if they bother him again, in which he does (17-18). She attempts to make Richard tenacious and independent in this particular situation because she believes this is the only way he can survive. Although he was abandoned, afraid, and discouraged he still overcame all of that, initiating the development of his independence. In this instance in Wright’s life, he is almost forced to be independent because of the irresponsibility of his father. In life, arduous situations may cause an individual to have a lot more responsibility put on them. Think about a time in your life where you had to be responsible when things didn’t turn out to your liking. Responsibility forms independence. During most of Richard’s adolescent years, he is often disciplined through the church and religion mainly because of his grandmother and Aunt Addie. For instance when Richard said, â€Å"I could not get a job that would let me rest on Granny’s holy Sabbath.†(133), it showed that strict religion was enforced upon him stripping him of freedom to do things. However, Richard did not allow that to get in his way, and he took hold of his desires whether Granny liked it or not. Also, at very few moments during this time he comes very close to being influenced by religion; â€Å"While listening to the vivid language of the sermons I was pulled towards emotional belief, but as soon as I went out of the church †¦ I knew that none of it was true and that nothing would happen.†(102). This instance, and the many other instances where his grandmother had gotten people to attempt to influence Richard religiously, shows how uneasily influenced Richard is, and does not feel the need to agree with everyone else so that he can fit in. When Richard refuses the church and religion at all, he shows his independence and that he does not have be a part of something that he is indifferent about, no matter who may be attempting to influence him. Sometimes being disciplined by someone can also cause you to be independent, because you understand the responsibility of not â€Å"overstepping† boundaries; but, sometimes you must overstep them to prove that you are your own person. Finally, as a young boy it is recognized in the novel that Richard is not like most of the other people around him. He is a passionate reader and writer, and most of the people he lives and associates himself with are skeptical and puzzled at his hunger for knowledge. In one instance Richard writes a story, The Voodoo of Hell’s Half-Acre, and almost everyone he knows discourages his writing, except a newspaper editor (165-166). He learns to be independent from both his family and friends subjugation and discouragement of his writing. Also, when Richard joins the Communist Party they do not always except him, or the things that he does (ch.18). Once again Wright has been put down and suppressed, yet he remains the same. Sometimes being independent does not only make you responsible, disciplined, and individualistic, but a strong person altogether. If you cannot handle the adversities of life, you’ll never finish your journey and never really experience life for yourself. To conclude, Richard Wright has definitely proven through the novel Black Boy that he is a very independent individual. Wright is showing that the things that may be disguised as nothing but trouble are actually opportunities to grow into this thing we call a human being; this includes being an independent, self-reliant person. Through all of the disappointments, pain, and depressing times in his life he remained liberated and accepted the responsibilities he had to accomplish as a young man, which involved him even disciplining himself just to show his independence and maturity. Also, his independence developed who he wanted to be, and not what others wanted him to be. In the end the universal theme of this essay is that it is vitally important to be a self-sufficient, independent person and who you want to be, not who others want you to be, and knowing that adversities aren’t made to hurt you but to make you stronger. â€Å"Open your eyes look within. Are you satisfied with the life youre living?†- Bob Marley.

Saturday, September 21, 2019

The Role Of Vocabulary English Language Essay

The Role Of Vocabulary English Language Essay However, nowadays, the importance of vocabulary as also learning a language has become more accepted. Vocabulary is a basic component of language proficiency which provides the basis for learners performance in other skills, such as speaking, reading, listening and writing. (Nation, 2008) Therefore, acquiring vocabulary it is a fundamental process when learning an L2 because it will not only develop the writing skills, but also the remaining ones. As a consequence, learners will become competent on their level of language because it seems that the four skills will be hand in hand. Between many forms or learning vocabulary, it is the possibility of learning vocabulary incidentally. Hunt and Beglar (1998) point out that many vocabularies are learned incidentally through extensive reading and listening. For this reason, motivating learners to read and listen extensively can provide them with great opportunities to learn new vocabularies. According to Except for the first few thousand most common words, vocabulary learning predominantly occurs through extensive reading with the learner guessing the meaning of unknown words. This process is incidental learning of vocabulary for the acquisition of new words and is the by-product of the reading. Most of the papers in the special issue of incidental vocabulary learning (Wesche Paribakht, 1999) refer to incidental learning as something that is learned without specific focus of attention in a classroom context. Research on both first and second language development supports the conclusion that most vocabulary learning occurs naturally when learners try to understand new words they hear or read in context. This process is called incidental because it occurs as learners are focused on something other than word learning itself. (T. Sima) Wode is the most specific author about this topic when he provides the following operational definition: language learning as a by-product of language use by the teacher or anybody else in the classroom, without the linguistic structure itself being the focus of attention or the target of teaching maneuvers In the process of incidental vocabulary learning, word knowledge is thought to be cumulated and developed gradually through multiple exposures in various reading contexts. Extensive reading, as a form of comprehensible input, has the effect of providing learners with rich contexts ideal for vocabulary learning. During the reciprocal process of extensive reading, the acquisition of words is the result of successes in inferring word meanings from a meaningful context and through more reading experiences the developed and matured vocabulary inference ability could in turn contributes to reading level. As believed by Huckin and Coady (1999), incidental vocabulary learning can be really advantageous for learners because it is a more learner based process, in which learners select the reading materials to study according to their personal preferences. Therefore, reading will be more interesting for each person. Another advantage of this process is that it can be pedagogically efficient, since it leads two activities at the same time: vocabulary acquisition and reading comprehension. Learners acquire new vocabulary, language learning, and grammatical knowledge as also develop their critical thinking when reading and comprehending the main ideas. Finally, since it is contextualized, the readers can understand the meaning and the use of the word within the context established in the text. For this reason, enrich their knowledge of the words they already know, increase lexical access speeds, build network linkages between words, and a few words will be acquired Horst, Cobb and Meara (1998) (p. 221) Although having these favorable situations in order that it is easier for students to acquire new vocabulary, Ellis proposes some factors that may affect the process when learning an L2. These factors are grouped in four and are classified in: Intrinsic word properties, Input factors, Interactional factors and Learner factors. Intrinsic word properties Some words have a higher grade of difficulty in order to be learnt from oral input; R. Ellis considered four intrinsic word properties which appear to influence acquisition: a) Pronounceability: It takes a long time to students to pronounce an L2 word; thereby their ability to produce it will take a long time also. Laufer (1997) cites a number of sources that suggest that pronounceable words are more likely to be perceived accurately, and that learners may avoid attending to phonologically problematic words. While there is a major similarity between the learners first language and the target language functions, there will be a bigger determinant of difficulty. b) Part of speech: There are some researches that suggest that learners learn nouns faster than other parts of speech, at least in the early stages. There are a few explanations for these researches. Nation (1990) suggests that the meaning of nouns can be guessed from context more easily than the meaning of verbs. Other explanation is that learners initially concentrate on nouns because they are more useful when decoding and encoding messages. Ellis (1984) says that verbs are omitted more frequently than nouns because they are not so important when receiving a message. Finally, Ellis and Beaton (1993) suggest that nouns may be easier to learn than other parts of speech because they are more imageable. c)Distinctiveness of word form: learning a word that has its own uniqueness is easier than learning a word that is similar to some other word. According to a study made by Huckin and Bloch (1993) learners allowed word shape to override contextual factors. For instance, one learner misread optimal as optional. It is interesting to note that the words causing the problem begin and end with the same letters being differentiated by letters in medial position. d) Length of word form: It is easy to believe that for learners it is better to remember monosyllabic than polysyllabic words. Meara (1984) reports that Chinese learners of L2 English were found to have an unexpected difficulty with long words. However, Meara suggests that the reason of this is that there is a need of putting more effort and time to process and remember polysyllabic words. Other factors are that long words may be less pronounceable than short words. Also, as Laufer (1997) says, in a language as English, shorter words tend to be more frequent in the input. Input factors Krashen (1994) expressed that comprehensible input is all that is necessary for second-language acquisition (Krashen, Stephen (1994). The input hypothesis and its rivals. In Ellis, Nick.  Implicit and Explicit Learning of Languages. London: Academic Press. pp.  45-77.  ISBN  978-0-12-237475-3.) Krashen (1981) also said from some of his studies that the length of time a person stays in a foreign country is closely linked with his level of language acquisition. Cook, Vivian (2008).  Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. London: Arnold.  ISBN  978-0-340-95876-6. For further more evidence, Cook (2008) suggests that input comes from studies on reading: large amounts of free voluntary reading have a significant positive effect on learners vocabulary, grammar, and writing. Input is also the mechanism by which people learn languages according to the  universal grammar  model. Krashen, Stephen (1981a).  Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. New York: Pergamon Press.  ISBN  0-08-025338-5. Retrieved 2011-02-28. Interactional factors Ellis refers to interactional factors when the interaction provides more input that becomes more prominent to learners, and also she says that learners can acquire vocabulary from non-interactional input through different techniques, as teacher-discourse, which includes definition, conjunction, elaboration, among others. Learner factors Ellis suggests that the factors that are related directly with learners may be combined with different variations while the acquisition occurs, due to their background knowledge, procedural knowledge, second language vocabulary size, morphological knowledge, and learners L1. EVIDENCE: In the past, it was believed in the proposition that most vocabulary was learned incidentally through the argument that learning from context is the only way to account for most vocabulary acquisition and for the close relationship between the growth of vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension ability. (e.g., Nagy Anderson, 1984; Sternberg, 1987). Some researchers have investigated the subject matter and have shown evidence that vocabulary can be incidentally learnt through the exposure to reading comprehension texts. On one hand evidence presented from a case study of a Japanese ESL speaker studying anthropology at an American university (Parry, 1993) demonstrated her incremental vocabulary growth over time through repeated encounters with given words in the course textbook. Experimental evidence of incidental vocabulary growth has been reported in research on secondary school students learning pseudo- L1 words and rare L2 words (Hulstijn, 1992), in which significant-if quite low-incidental learning of target words occurred from a single encounter in a 900-word text. Similarly, an experiment that required adult ESL learners to read and subsequently recall stories demonstrated retention of some low-frequency L2 words first encountered in a 300-word expository text (Joe, 1995). A more complete study by Paribakht Wesche, 1997 was based on tracked vocabulary learning by 38 intermediate-level university ESL learners in a thematic reading program under Reading Only and Reading Plus instructional conditions, each program requiring equivalent class time. Learners experienced two thematic units for each treatment, thus acting as their own controls. In Reading Only, learners read selected texts on two themes (a total of four texts) and had to answer comprehension questions. The texts provided multiple exposures to a number of nouns, verbs, and discourse connectors that had been identified as generally unfamiliar to students at this level of ESL proficiency. In the Reading Plus treatment, students had to read four texts on two themes and then carried out text-based vocabulary activities targeting the same set of words. Gains in both treatments were measured by pre and post-administration of the target word list using the Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS; Paribakht Wesche, 1993; Wesche Paribakht, 1996), an instrument that was developed not only to measure the number of words learners knew to some extent but also to identify different levels of knowledge ranging from the recognition of the word; its meaning and also the ability of learners to use the word grammatically correct in a sentence. The results between known versus unknown words before and after instruction on the VKS indicated significant gains in both treatments, although Reading Plus led to greater gains. After the Reading Only treatment, learners knowledge of target words tended to remain at the recognition level, whereas after the Reading Plus treatment many learners were able to write sentences using the new words. These findings were interpreted to mean that, although multiple encounters with given words during reading leads to increased knowledge of the words, a combination of reading and text-based exercises demanding different kinds of analysis and practice of the words is more effective for vocabulary learning. Despite the more favorable results of Reading Plus, the significant gains in Reading Only are arguably of greater practical significance for language learn Reading and Incidental L2 Vocabulary Acquisition. The concept of glosses dates back to the Middle Ages, but it has been largely studied by researchers until late in this century. Glosses provide a short definition or an image in order to facilitate reading and comprehension processes for L2 learners. Nation (1983) defined glosses as short definitions; Pak (1986) refers to them as explanations of the meanings of words. Glosses are usually located in the side or bottom margins, and they are most often supplied for unfamiliar words, which may help to limit continual dictionary consultation that may hinder and interrupt the L2 reading comprehension process. Many studies have confirmed that a gloss is more useful than no gloss for incidental vocabulary learning. Hulstijin, Hollander and Greidanus (1996) have examined the effectiveness of glosses on incidental vocabulary learning. They studied the influence of marginal glosses, dictionary use, and the reoccurrence of unknown words on incidental vocabulary learning. Recently, researchers have become interested in which gloss type is more effective, and whether there are any differences between different glosses, for example, between single glosses and multiple-choice glosses (Duan Yan, 2004; Miyasako, 2002). Miyasako (2002) compared multiple-choice glosses and single glosses and found there was no difference between the multiple-choice and single glosses in their effect on vocabulary learning. Duan Yan (2004) also examined the effects of multiple-choice glosses, single glosses and no glosses. The results indicated that both multiple-choice glosses and single glosses significantly promoted incidental vocabulary learning, while multiple-choice glosses were better than single glosses in incidental vocabulary learning. Others studied the effects of sentence-level L1 translations on incidental vocabulary learning. Grace (1998, 2000) tested the effects of sentence-level L1 translations on incidental vocabulary learning, while Gettys et al. (2001) compared the glosses of sentence level L1 translation with the glosses of dictionary form L1. Grace used sentence-level L1 translations to replace word definitions or explanations and found that the translation glosses were very effective, while Gettys et al. found that the dictionary form glosses were more effective than sentence-level translation glosses.

Friday, September 20, 2019

Causes and Effects of Organisational Structure Change

Causes and Effects of Organisational Structure Change ABSTRACT This dissertation will help to understand the reasons, why organizations change and its affect on the organizational structure. To comprehend the selected topic various secondary sources from the public domain has been taken. Information from these sources has been addressed under the heading literature review. It gives an overview of the triggers of change in the first section with special reference to role of the change agent in the change process, followed by a section how the organizational structure is affected by triggers of change. Next section addresses the contribution of the structure towards change followed by employees attitude to the change process. This literature review helped to understand already established concepts on the topic. And to realize the commercial application of the management theories two companies have been selected, Atari and Oticon. One of them changed its structure because of triggers in the external environment and it was successful and still perfo rming well but the other did not change and it perished. At the end this dissertation helped to look at the ways of making the changing process a subtle experience instead of making it a knee-jerk incident as suggested by many authors in the field. AIMS AND LEARNING OBJECTIVES This dissertation is an attempt to examine the relevance of theoretical studies to real commercial situations. And it gives us an opportunity to demonstrate our understanding and application of the concepts and theories taught in the MSc programme. While undertaking this task it also tested our ability to exhibit business research skills and to make a clear presentation of findings. And finally at the end it allows us to do a critical evaluation of our future career path. METHODOLOGY As a part of MSc Management course work this dissertation is to be completed based on secondary research. And it consists of published journals, books, annual reports of the companies, corporate and other websites. Most of the published journals are available through the University of Glasgow library database belonging to different disciplines from psychology to management reviews. There are certain limitations and challenges faced during its completion like it did not allow any primary research which means restriction of work only through secondary research. But the availability of overwhelming amount of research works on the selected topic posed another challenge. It was challenging to sieve through it and extract the relevant information which would help to conclude the topic. Other challenges faced are the time limit of only four months, and word limit of maximum twelve thousand which is quite less to compress all the work from literature review, company history to analysis of ea ch part. I have called this principle, by which each slight variation, if useful, is preserved, by the term Natural Selection Charles Darwin Charles Darwin was the British naturalist who was renowned for his theories of evolution and natural selection (www.lucidcafe.com). As the theory of natural selection suggests that in the biological world organisms develop certain characteristics that help them to survive in the environment. That is, the strongest survive in certain environmental conditions and these characteristics are transferred from one generation to the next through genes (www.allaboutscience.org). Change is inevitable and environment is changing at a much faster rate than anticipated, influencing all levels of the society, from individual to the corporate settings making the world a vibrant place to live. From organizational perspective, change in an organization can be triggered by advancement of technology, to the quest of the management to excel in the market. And to avoid annihilation one has to transform itself and adapt to its environment. To understand each aspect of change from organizational point of view will be an enormous task with amount of literature available. So the core focus will be to understand the triggers of change, role of a change agent in the changing process. The next aspect is to know why changes within the organization affect its structure. Subsequently the nature of change, that is how organizations change and finally the aspect of employees reaction to the change. And for a better understanding of all the aspects, first it is an attempt to understand the literature available on this topic and to comprehend their application in real life situation two companies have been chosen, Oticon and Atari as the case studies. LITERATURE REVIEW 5.0 INTRODUCTION Literature review is an effort to study the research work done by various authors ranging from 1958 to 2008. The main topic of this research is to understand what makes organizations change and its consequences on the structure. It includes an introduction on various forms of triggers of change comprising of a discussion on the role of a change agent, its leadership style and power skills in the first section. The second section is about how change affects organizational structure. Next section consists of the nature of change that is, the type of change that organizations go through. And the last section deals with employees reaction to change with a discussion on Hofstedes work on culture. There has been an overwhelming amount of research work on different aspect of organizational change and it will be beyond the scope of this dissertation in terms of time and words to cover each topic. So it has been decided to get an overview on a part of organizational change as mentioned above. SECTION 5.1 TRIGGERS OF CHANGE This section would cover the reasons that might activate a change process in an organization. Some authors have classified trigger of change into groups based on their relation to the organization, while others have a more generalised view. Triggers of change have been categorized into external and internal triggers. External triggers would include change in customer needs, competition, innovative technology, new opportunities, change in social and cultural values, change in trading conditions, change in legislation and government policies (Huczynski and Buchanan, 2000a). Scarcity of essential resources also results in change and can lead to formulation of new strategies, policies, rules and regulations, innovative ways of communication, encouraging team work, developing new technology which can lead to the change of the entire structure of the organization (Chackerian and Mavima, 2000). Globalization of marketplace, enhanced technologies, fierce competition, liberalization of economies, single European currency, electronic-trading, reduction of cost in production, information and transportation through economies of scale, supply chain integration (Daft, 2006), environmental awareness towards global warming, industrial waste disposal management, use of renewable and non-renewable raw materials, health awareness towards obesity, diabetes etc making consumers move towards natural food from the synthetic ones, change in lifestyle due to increase in disposable income leading to the change in attitude towards work, leisure-time and society etc. Changing perspective towards work style from traditional to teleworking, outsourcing, advances in communication allows organization to be multinationals without leaving their own countries (Paton and McCalman, 2000a). Internal triggers would include appointment of a new senior executive, new and better ways of serving customers, infrastructure relocation, innovative product development (Huczynski and Buchanan, 2000b). Presence of influential group within the organization can trigger change (Greenwood and Hinings, 1996) or change in top hierarchy may lead to change through accepting and implementing innovation (Boeker, 1997a; Kraatz Moore, 2002). Change of managers within the hierarchy of the organization may lead to change (Boeker, 1997b), new responsibility can bring new motivation to do better and can lead to change through enhance learning, communication and introducing new technology etc (Fernandez and Pitts, 2007a). Organizations experience several types of triggers and thus implement several types of changes. It has been reported that 50% of organizations adapts changes due to crisis (Beddowes and Wille, 2007a). Organizational crisis can arise from external triggers such as competitors which can be a new firm or a rival, change in legislation, action of a stake holder by selling or buying a significant amount of shares, buy-out from an organisation etc (Eccles, 1994a). And 23% of organizations proactively change while anticipating threats and while doing so 44% percent of organizations change their organizational structure. (Beddowes and Wille, 2007b). According to a study of 100 companies, majority showed re-structuring as successful, as there are examples of companies running in losses for millions of dollars for a decade and then turning into a profit making company in two years with evidence of effective work through teams and employee empowerment. So triggers of change can be financial losses leading to drop in profits which can attract new leadership and which may lead to changes in the structure (Haveman, Russo and Meyer, 2001a), increased competition leading to loss of market share, industry in recession, appointment of new chief executive officer, proactive action (opportunities or threats foreseen), technological development and effective ways of staff utilisation (Beddowes and Wille, 2007c). According to Champy and Nohria (1996) there are three major triggers of change; technology, government and globalization. Technology especially information technology has transformed business in many different ways. For example e-banking has opened new strategies for the banks of doing their business electronically and over the net, giving better access to customers with personalised services. Another example is the use of information technology in the field of publishing of research journals. It has helped in speeding up the process of research and its publication. The government role as a trigger of change is by changing the policies which affects businesses. Deregulation, privatisation and free trade etc are opening up new ways for businesses and encouraging them to change their strategies. This type of change in government policies has been termed as regulatory punctuation which gives organizations new opportunities for expansion (Haveman, Russo and Meyer, 2001b). Another trigger of change is the observable fact of globalization. It has helped in developing new concepts of this century like outsourcing and forced companies to work in virtual environment. Change can be a powerful energizer and creative force which can be good and would lead to development of innovative ways of getting a competitive advantage as well as bad with callous demands on employees and other measures like downsizing for cost cutting etc. As mentioned earlier organizations appoint change agent to deal with external triggers which leads to internal changes in the organization. There is evidence that 16% of changes takes place due to appointment of new Chief Executive Officer (CEO) with characteristics like charismatic personality, with a clear idea of what and how changes are to be made, capable of taking a holistic view of the organization and who believes in team work (Beddowes and Wille, 2007d). Managers do play a crucial role in planning and in implementing organizational change (Fernandez and Pitts, 2007b). For effective implementation of change there are three factors that need to be considered, the attitude, motivation and mind set of the change agent designing the change (Newman, 1973a). Previous research suggests that there exists a difference in the role of a change agent in the public sector and the private sector organizations. For example, there is significant amount of work directing towards the fact that public organizations although show more resistance to change but they often change according to Peters and Hogwood (1988) cited in Fernandez and Pitts (2007c). But some authors argued that organizational change has little to do with managerial leadership. As suggested by Hannan and Freeman (1984a) organizations survive because they are strong enough for a particular environment marked by size, age and complexity of the organization. But an organization stands for collective work of individuals and groups to fulfil the objectives and goal through set of rules, which needs direction and vision which is the responsibility of the organizational leader (Burke, 2002). And in order to influence individuals to work collectively towards a common goal is a complex task in itself on the part of the organizational leader. As stated influence is the essence of leadership (Yulk, 2002: P 141). The role of a change agent becomes effective when there is adequate leadership skill or influencing power to let others follow the vision and reach the goal. There is a list of twelve traits which consist of strong drive for responsibility , focus on completing the task , vigorous and persistence in pursuit of goals, venturesomeness and originality in problem solving drive to exercise initiative in social settings, self-confidence , sense of personal identity, willingness to accept consequences of decisions and actions, readiness to absorb interpersonal stress, willingness to tolerate frustration and delays, ability to influence the behaviour of others, capacity to structure social systems to the purpose in hand according to Stogdill (1950, 1954) cited in Huczynski and Buchanan (2007c). While studying American executives, 15 indispensible leadership traits were identified, which are judgement, initiative, integrity , foresight, energy, drive, human relations skill, decisiveness, dependability, emotional stability, fairness, ambition, dedication, objectivity and co-operation according to Stewart (1963) and there are as many as 80 leadership traits, identified in various studies as cited in Huczynski and Buchanan (2007d). As leadership is all about influential skills or power skills on the part of the change agent so that the vision of the change is followed by others (followers). The power to influence others measures the extent of leadership value (Huczynski and Buchanan, 2007e). At individual level power can be seen as a motivational tool when an individual tries to control and influence events and when this is manifested in terms of observable action by others then power is seen as a behavioural aspect. Power in behavioural terms has been divided into eight categories reward, coercive, referent, legitimate, expert power (French and Raven, 1958a), informative, affiliation and group power (Benfari, et.al, 1986a). Reward power describes the ability to influence others in such a manner that followers believe the leader have the capacity to offer valuable reward or incentive in return of the obedience shown to the leaders demand. Coercive nature of power shows that the leader has the capacity to punish in the form of penalties and sanctions in return of noncompliance to the leaders demand. Referent power describes the ability of the leader to control by his/her enigmatic personality. Power is said to be of legitimate nature based on the authoritative position of the leader which is followed by the others as a compulsion. And the expert power which is described by its name that leader has expert knowledge and experience to make other people follow the instructions as it is regarded as of superior nature (French and Raven, 1958b). Informative power is similar to expert power and describes the leader to have undisclosed information crucial to the organization which makes the leader superior and thus followed by others. Affiliation power shows the leader to have strong relations with influential figures in the organization and society and thus followed on this basis. And the last category is the group power which is associated with the leaders ability to lead a team or group with sharing of power and responsibilities. All the eight categories are perceived either as positive (P+), beneficial or negative (P-) as exploitation or mixed response (P+ and P-) by the receiving party according to its characteristics. For example reward and referent power are received as P+. Coercion and information form of power as P-(Benfari, et.al, 1986b). But all are situational that is they have different influential power when used under different situation and the most effective leadership style that has emerged with time is the g roup power with sharing of power between the leader and others, as it can give the feeling of responsibility to take decision which can be rewarding (Huczynski and Buchanan, 2007f). Summary So in brief triggers are mainly external that pressurises organizations to undertake internal changes. And it is a crucial responsibility of the change leader to assess the external situation and act accordingly so that the internal changes are done in a subtle way. When an organization becomes successful in making the relevant changes and performs well, it will pose a threat to other organizations and thus trigger another set of changes taking the course of a chain reaction. But why does an organization has to change its structure? This can be understood in the next section of the literature review. Section 3. 2 Affect of change on the organizational structure As mentioned earlier 44% percent of organizations change their organizational structure (Beddowes and Wille, 2007e) while adopting internal changes. The structure of an organization can be defined simply as the sum total of the ways in which it divides its labour into distinct tasks and then achieves coordination among them.(Mintzberg, 1979a: 2) According to Newman (1973b: xiii) Organization is a system for enabling people to reach or attempt to reach certain objectives and it involves the use of resources to carry out activities towards those objectives. The basic features of an organization involve presence of objective(s), people and the environment in which it operates. Objective(s) would be the reason behind its existence, people working in an organization communicate, coordinate with occasional conflicts carry out activities in an organised way which is in par with the objective(s) of the overall organization. And these objective(s) are the opportunities and constraints provided by the environment, within which an organization exists. In order to survive, an organization must be able to understand the environment i.e. its complex surroundings and establish a relation with the trading market, products and services, suppliers, finances, customer preferences, competitors, employees, government policies, social settings, c ulture etc which would eventually help it to formulate the objective(s). Organization tends to establish relationship between people, units, roles etc with a degree of consistency embracing all the relationships which is the basic source of structure for an organization. The three basic features of organization that demands the need of a structure are first is the organizations desired activity in order to fulfil its objective(s) through effective use of available resources, second, the way of carrying out its activities i.e. the process and the third is the behaviour of the people working for the organization while carrying out the first two features. The function of a structure is to give stability, consistency, by holding things together giving it a form and reducing randomness while outlining its operations. The design of the structure must facilitate the fulfilment of the organizational objective(s). The conventional forms of organization design were the functional form, the e xecutive or administrative form and line or staff form. The functional form of the structure reflects the kind of function performed by the people. As required, new positions are developed along with new divisions or departments. But as complexity of work increases and it requires more coordination among divisions this structure becomes inadequate otherwise this form works well for independent work in each divisions. TOP MANAGEMENT DIVISION A DIVISION B DIVISION C DIVISION D Source: The Functional Form (Newman, 1972c:81) The administrative form separates the organizations actual work and the internal management of the organization. As it is difficult to separate the executive side of the organization which is more result orientated and the administrative side of the organization which controls the resources . Communication plays an important role in coordinating between the two; otherwise it can give rise to conflicts. The line or staff form shows relationship between the operation and the people within the organization that is, work demand and it is an extension of the executive form. One problem faced in this form is the control of managers over the subordinates and another is the orientation of the structure to the kind of work the organization is engaged with. For example line structure can be marketing orientated, sales orientated and so on. But as demand from the environment increases there is a need for multi-functional structure. The inadequacies of the conventional forms led to the formation of the new structure called the matrix form. TOP MANAGEMENT FACILITIES STRUCTURE OUTPUT STRUCTURE Source: Matrix Form (Newman, 1972d:85) Matrix structure is task based or project based that is, based on work demand. It is flexible as it changes according to the project or task at hand. And this type became popular among organizations dealing with large projects like civil engineering, research and development organizations etc. This structure deals with two basic objectives, first is the output of the organization and second is the ability to produce the output. Both are interconnected and interdependent on each other with the top management being responsible for its control and ensuring efficient utilization of resources. As it is project specific, unutilised resources needs to be reallocated or used for training etc. According to Mintzberg (1979b) there are five basic elements of a structure, mutual adjustment, direct supervision, standardization of work process, work outputs and worker skills and these hold the organization together. Mutual adjustment is achieved through informal communication while coordinating work. Direct supervision is the process of scrutinizing and instructing others work by an individual which again ensures mutual adjustment. Standardization of work process, output and worker skills can be achieved when they are precisely specified. In complex organizational environment these five factors work in a loop. Standardization Work Process Of Output Mutual Adjustment Mutual Adjustment Direct Supervision Worker Skills Source: The coordination mechanism among the five basic elements of a structure. (Mintzberg, 1979c: P 7) Organizational change reflects re-organization in the structure of the organization which includes the patterns of roles, policies and procedures which affects the relationship between them and thus affects the structure. The change can be due to new customer preferences, new work requirements, new strategies etc. In order to have an effective process of change, reviewing of the consequences of change is necessary and making relevant adjustments to the structure and policies from the results. The second factor is the change itself and for effective change it is necessary to have adequate information from the past and present as change begins with the analysis of these situations. As change means weakening of old or existing relationships and strengthening new ones and a critical situation is reached when old ties are weakened and new ties are not strong enough. Problems are faced when relationships between various factors in an organisation which were compatible in the old situation becomes incompatible in the new situation. So it is important to develop all the factors in such a way that will reinforce rather than inhibiting peoples work. For an organization to be effective, its structure, policies etc should enhance peoples output and attitude towards change. The third factor is the development of the relationship between the people and the new settings. This can be done by effective communication, consultation, discussion, participation among the employees and involving people in the change process (Newman, 1973e). According to Greiner (1972) as cited in Meredith and Mantel (2003) an organization tends to develop a structure whilst growing and adding resources and establishing relationship between them and at the core is the specialization factor of the human element of the organization. The structure remains stable till it facilitates the completion of the task but if there is change in the nature of the task due to any of the above mentioned triggers of change, and the present structure hinders the completion of the new task, it will indicate a need for change and which affects the structure of the organization. According to Chandler (1962a) organizational structure reflects the health of an organization. Structure is defined as the design of the organization through which the enterprise is administered (p: 14). The design has two aspects, first is the line of control and communication between various units and people working in them and second aspect is the flow of information within these lines. And these two aspects are essential to fulfil the organizational goal. Structure follows the strategy of the organization, for example when an organization decides to expand and increase the number of offices; it requires more administrative infrastructure and people to handle it and thus changes the structure. Again if an organization has overseas expansion plans it will have departments and headquarters to administer its individual units. Diversification to new type of function or vertical integration will attract a multi-departmental structure with a central main office. Diversification into new product line will be supported by multi-divisional structure with a general office to control the divisions. This multidivisional structure would attract decentralisation of authority from the centralised control in departmental structure. The coordination and control of business units takes place through centralisation and decentralisation form of decision making. Centralization means power to control and coordinate resides in one person while decentralisation means division of power into many individuals. Research shows cognitive limitation in centralized decision making as it involves only one person and organizations face many complex situations. And a rational way of making decisions in such situations is through decentralisation. Other benefits of decentralisation are that it allows better understanding of the environment and it facilitates innovation and creativity as it involves many brains (Mintzberg, 1979d). According to Drucker (1988) as soon as a company changes its strategy from paper work to electronic mode it starts affecting the decision process, management structure, over all way of working style of the organization eventually affecting the organizational structure. And this includes change from command and control mode of working in departments and divisions into information based organization of knowledge specialists. According to Burns and Stalker (1961) as cited in Mintzberg (1979e), that if the environment is volatile the organizations have to have a flexible and an organic structure in order to adapt itself to changing environment but if the environment is stable organizations can have bureaucratic structures performing routine and standardised tasks. Organizations have adopted flat, flexible structure which emphasizes on empowerment and team work culture in order to cope up with the changing nature of the environment. Successful organizations show involvement of employees in decision making and also as a part of the change the organization needs (Piderit, 2000a). As stated by Burns and Stalker (1961) cited in Meadows (1980a) organic structure has the following characteristics, team work to complete a common task, no fixed rules or methods to accomplish the task, periodic re-examine of the task so that it can be readjusted according to demands of the surroundings through communication, consultative nature of communication instead of autocratic nature, closely knitted network of communication, devotion towards the organization and the task and appreciation for intellectual and technological soundness. Summary Organizational structure is the reflection of its internal relationship between all its resources (people and work) which are constantly influenced by the external factors. And thus when an organization makes internal changes in order to cope up with the external triggers eventually changes its structure. Organizations need to have a flexible structure (organic) so that it can adapt to the environment which is volatile in nature due to external triggers. And as suggested growth without structural adjustment can lead to economic failure (Chandler, 1962b; p: 16). The next question that arises is that does the structure of the organization affects or facilitates changes within an organization? This can be understood in the next section of the literature review. Section 3.3 Nature of change While organizations adapt to environment, structure plays an important role, if the inherent nature of the structure is flexible then changes are easily done otherwise it poses a threat to both the process and content of change. Organizational change is the difference in organizational features measured over a period of time. Organizational features can range from functions performed by individuals or organizational subunits or relationship among other organizations and the environment (Van de Ven, 2004a). Organizational theories are either focused on the content of change or process of change. Barnett and Carroll (1995a) have suggested a distinction between process and content aspect of the changing organizations. Content refers to the element of the organization that changes and process refers to the actual course of action or procedure that is adopted to make those changes. The outcomes of both content and process changes have different effects on the organization although there is a clear interaction between them. Types of changes due to various triggers can be at various levels. For example, at organisational level, change may occur in the culture and structure of the organization with new work practices, emphasising on training and team work, introducing new reward systems and innovative ways of communication etc. Another prominent type of changing is through cost cutting measures like staff reduction or downsizing. Market led issues may lead to customer orientated focus with new products with better quality, adapting innovative technology (Beddowes and Wille, 2007f). A similar list suggested by Van De Ven (2004b) consists of structural change featuring decentralization or centralization; functional change in strategies to bring new and better products and services; compositional change featuring downsizing and recruitment, resource allocation; change in relationship between organization units through effective communication, exchange of resources across units; change in boundary through bus iness expansion or contraction using mergers, acquisition, joint ventures etc; environmental changes due to resource scarcity etc, and lastly change in performance showing profitability, job satisfaction etc. These comprises of the content aspect of the organization change.